Indian Polity & Constitution
🔒 Log in to trackPanchayati Raj, Municipalities and Emergency
🔒 Log in to trackPanchayati Raj committees (very common PYQ)
| Committee | Year | Recommendation |
|---|---|---|
| Balwant Rai Mehta | 1957 | Three-tier PR system; led to launch at Nagaur, Rajasthan on 2 Oct 1959 (then Andhra Pradesh) |
| Ashok Mehta | 1977 | Two-tier system — Zila Parishad + Mandal Panchayat; district as first point of decentralisation |
| G.V.K. Rao | 1985 | District the basic unit of planning — District Development Commissioner |
| L.M. Singhvi | 1986 | Constitutional status for PRIs; Nyaya Panchayats |
73rd Amendment (1992) — Panchayats (Part IX, Arts. 243–243O, 11th Schedule)
Three-tier system (two-tier if State population below 20 lakh); Gram Sabha (243A); reservation for SC/ST in proportion and not less than 1/3rd for women (many States have raised it to 50% — Bihar first, 2006); 5-year term; State Election Commission (243K); State Finance Commission every 5 years (243I); 29 subjects in the 11th Schedule.
74th Amendment (1992) — Municipalities (Part IX-A, 12th Schedule)
Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, Municipal Corporation; 18 subjects; same reservation pattern; District/Metropolitan Planning Committees (243ZD/243ZE).
Emergency provisions (Part XVIII)
| Type | Article | Key facts |
|---|---|---|
| National | 352 | Proclaimed 3 times — 1962 (China), 1971 (Pakistan), 1975 ("internal disturbance", now "armed rebellion" per 44th Amdt). Approval within 1 month, renewal every 6 months; LS can revoke by simple majority; FRs of Art. 19 auto-suspend (Art. 358); only Arts. 20–21 never suspend (Art. 359) |
| President's Rule | 356 | First used in 1959 (Kerala); imposed over 130 times; 6-month approval, max 3 years (conditions after 1 year per S.R. Bommai case, 1994 — floor test, judicial review) |
| Financial | 360 | Never imposed so far |
Panchayati Raj — Part IX (73rd Amendment, 1992)
Rural local government became a constitutional tier on 24 April 1993 (now National Panchayati Raj Day). The framework: Gram Sabha (every village, all registered voters) at the base; a three-tier system — village panchayat, intermediate (block) panchayat, Zila Parishad — though states with under 20 lakh population may skip the middle tier. Panchayats serve 5-year terms (dissolved mid-way elections must follow within 6 months). Seats are reserved for SCs/STs in proportion to population and not less than one-third for women (many states now give 50%). A State Election Commission (Article 243K) conducts panchayat elections; a State Finance Commission (Article 243-I) reviews panchayat finances every 5 years. The Eleventh Schedule lists 29 subjects. Roughly one-third of panchayat seats/chairs are reserved for women by the constitutional minimum.
The committee ladder
| Committee | Recommendation |
|---|---|
| Balwant Rai Mehta, 1957 | Three-tier democratic decentralisation ('democratic decentralisation' phrase) |
| Ashok Mehta, 1977 | Two-tier: Zila Parishad + Mandal Panchayat |
| G.V.K. Rao, 1981 | District as the planning unit; 'grass without roots' remark on PRI paralysis |
| L.M. Singhvi, 1986 | Constitutional status for PRIs; Gram Sabha as the base |
| P.K. Thungon, 1988 | Constitutional recognition; Zila Parishad for planning |
The first panchayat under the 1959 scheme was inaugurated by Nehru at Nagaur, Rajasthan, on 2 October 1959. Remember the mapping: Balwant Rai = three-tier, Ashok Mehta = two-tier, Singhvi = constitutional status.
Municipalities — Part IX-A (74th Amendment, 1992)
In force from 1 June 1993; Article 243P–243ZG; the Twelfth Schedule lists 18 subjects. Three urban bodies: Nagar Panchayat (transitional area), Municipal Council (smaller urban area), Municipal Corporation (larger urban area). The same 5-year term, reservations, State Election Commission and Finance Commission rules apply; wards committees for municipalities with 3 lakh+ population. The 97th Amendment (2011) added Part IX-B on cooperative societies.
Emergency — Part XVIII (Articles 352–360)
- National Emergency (352): grounds are war, external aggression, armed rebellion (the 44th Amendment replaced 'internal disturbance'). Proclamation must be approved by both Houses within one month (44th changed it from 2 months); each approval lasts 6 months, renewable indefinitely by special majority. The Lok Sabha's own term can be extended one year at a time. Article 358 automatically suspends Article 19 (only in war/external-aggression cases); Article 359 lets the President suspend enforcement of other rights by order (Articles 20 and 21 can never be suspended — 44th Amendment).
- President's Rule (356): failure of constitutional machinery in a state; approval within 2 months; lasts 6 months at a time, extendable to 3 years with conditions (annual parliamentary approval after the first year). S.R. Bommai (1994) made proclamations subject to judicial review and barred using Article 356 for partisan ends.
- Financial Emergency (360): threatens financial stability; approval in 2 months; salaries of officials including judges can be reduced; never imposed so far.
Question types you will see
Each type: how to recognise it, the method step by step, and one question to try.
73rd Amendment structure
'The Gram Sabha consists of', 'which article provides a State Finance Commission', 'how many subjects in the Eleventh Schedule', statement sets on PRI structure.
Base = Gram Sabha (all registered voters of the village); tiers = village + intermediate + Zila Parishad (states under 20 lakh may skip the middle tier).
Terms 5 years; women's reservation one-third minimum; SEC conducts elections (243K); SFC every 5 years — Article 243-I.
Eleventh Schedule = 29 subjects; effective 24 April 1993 = Panchayati Raj Day.
A State Finance Commission is constituted once in —
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Five years under Article 243-I, to review the financial position of panchayats and municipalities and recommend tax-sharing and grants.
Committee ↔ recommendation
'Which committee recommended a two-tier system', 'constitutional status for panchayats was recommended by', matching four committees to their ideas.
Balwant Rai Mehta (1957) = three-tier; Ashok Mehta (1977) = two-tier (Zila Parishad + Mandal Panchayat).
G.V.K. Rao (1981) = district planning focus; L.M. Singhvi (1986) = constitutional status + Gram Sabha; Thungon (1988) = constitutional recognition, district planning.
Do not swap the two Mehtas — Balwant = three, Ashok = two.
Which committee recommended a two-tier Panchayati Raj system with Zila Parishad and Mandal Panchayat?
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The Ashok Mehta Committee (1977) — it wanted the block tier abolished, leaving Zila Parishad at the top and Mandal Panchayat below.
74th Amendment and urban bodies
'How many subjects in the Twelfth Schedule', 'which body for a transitional area', 'wards committees are required for municipalities above what population'.
Twelfth Schedule = 18 subjects; Part IX-A; effective 1 June 1993.
Body map: transitional area → Nagar Panchayat; smaller urban → Municipal Council; larger urban → Municipal Corporation.
Wards committees mandatory for municipalities with 3 lakh+ population (Article 243S); cooperative societies = Part IX-B (97th Amendment).
For a transitional area, the 74th Amendment provides for a —
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Nagar Panchayat; smaller urban areas get Municipal Councils and larger urban areas Municipal Corporations.
National Emergency (Article 352)
'Armed rebellion replaced internal disturbance — which amendment', 'within how many days/months must Parliament approve', 'which rights cannot be suspended', 358 vs 359 questions.
Grounds: war, external aggression, armed rebellion (44th Amendment). Proclamation laid before Parliament; approval within one month; 6-month renewals, no ceiling.
358: Article 19 stands suspended automatically in war/external aggression — not in armed-rebellion emergencies.
359: enforcement of other rights can be suspended by order — but Articles 20 and 21 never (44th Amendment).
Under the 44th Amendment, which Fundamental Rights can never be suspended during an emergency?
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Articles 20 and 21 — protection in convictions, and life/personal liberty, stay enforceable no matter what the proclamation covers.
President's Rule and Financial Emergency
'Approval period for Article 356', 'maximum duration of President's Rule', 'which case made 356 justiciable', 'has a Financial Emergency ever been imposed'.
Article 356: approval within 2 months; 6-month spells; ceiling 3 years (with conditions and annual approvals after the first year).
S.R. Bommai (1994): proclamations are open to judicial review; majority must be tested on the floor of the House.
Article 360 (Financial Emergency) has never been used; it can cut salaries, including of judges.
The famous case holding that a proclamation under Article 356 is subject to judicial review is —
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S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994) — the Court also laid down that a ministry's majority should be tested on the floor of the assembly, not in Raj Bhavan.
Shortcuts that save time
Balwant-3 (1957), Ashok-2 (1977), Rao-district (1985), Singhvi-Constitution (1986). Decade rhyme: 57-77-85-86.
Which committee's report led to the Nagaur (Rajasthan) launch of Panchayati Raj on 2 October 1959?
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The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (three-tier recommendation).
352-National (3 proclamations: 62, 71, 75), 356-President's Rule (Kerala 1959 first), 360-Financial (zero uses). Approvals: 1 month + every 6 months.
Which State first faced President's Rule in 1959?
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Kerala (the elected E.M.S. Namboodiripad government was dismissed).
Mistakes to avoid
Where most students lose marks on this subtopic.
Saying the 73rd Amendment created the Panchayats in 1959 — the 1959 date is only Rajasthan's launch; constitutional status came in 1992.
Mixing 11th Schedule (29 subjects, panchayats) with 12th (18, municipalities).
Claiming a Financial Emergency was declared in 1991 — Art. 360 has never been used.
Quick revision
Read this the night before the exam.
73rd (24 Apr 1993): Part IX, three tiers, Gram Sabha, 29 subjects (11th Schedule), SEC + SFC every 5 years.
Committees: Balwant Rai = 3-tier (1957), Ashok Mehta = 2-tier (1977), Singhvi = constitutional status (1986).
74th: Part IX-A, 18 subjects (12th Schedule), Nagar Panchayat/Council/Corporation, wards committees (3 lakh+).
National emergency: 'armed rebellion' (44th), 1-month approval, 6-month renewals; Art 19 auto-suspends (358); 20–21 never suspended.
President's Rule: 2-month approval, 6-month spells, 3-year ceiling; Bommai (1994) = judicial review.
Financial Emergency (360) has never been proclaimed.
Practice: 15 questions
Sets of 10, mixed across the question types above. Every answer has a step-by-step explanation.
Topic test · 10 questions
Suggested time 4 min · wrong answers go to your mistake notebook automatically.